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The "War on Terrorism" (also known as the War on Terror) is a campaign initiated by the United States and joined by other countries around the world which includes various military, political, legal, religious, and personal actions taken to attempt to curb the spread of terrorism, following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. The War on Terrorism was authorized by the United States Congress under the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists passed on September 18 2001.
Some critics, including politicians and international media, have taken to referring to it as the "so-called War on Terror".[Energy questions that will need to be answered. Liverpool Daily Post - Example of usage of phrase "so-called War on Terror". Retrieved on 2007-10-29.][War On Terror Labeled A Disaster. Sky News - Example of usage of phrase "so-called War on Terror". Retrieved on 2007-10-29.][U.S. war tab $200 billion for next year. Toronto Star - Example of usage of phrase "so-called War on Terror". Retrieved on 2007-10-29.][Misusing terror victims\' pain to fight culture wars. The Canberra Times - Example of usage of phrase "so-called War on Terror". Retrieved on 2007-10-29.][Don\'t cave in to the Taliban. International Herald Tribune - Example of usage of phrase "so-called War on Terror". Retrieved on 2007-10-29.] It also has been referred to as the "Global War on Terrorism (GWOT)", the "Global Struggle Against Violent Extremism (GSAVE)", "The War Against Terror (TWAT)" and the "Long War" by U.S. authorities. Both the phrase “War on Terrorism” and the policies it denotes have been a source of ongoing controversy, as critics argue they have been used to justify unilateral preemptive war, perpetual war, human rights abuses, and other violations of international law.["War on terror \'curbing human rights\'", BBC News, 01-16-2002.]["Civil Rights and the "War on Terror"", Amnesty International USA.]["Preemptive War and International Law", Center for Defense Information, 12-05-2003.]
Historical usage of phrase
The phrase "War on Terrorism" was first widely used by the Western press to refer to the attempts by Russian and European governments, and eventually the U.S. government, to stop attacks by anarchists against international political leaders.[The War on Terrorism. New York Times, April 2 1881.] Many of the anarchists described themselves as "Terrorists," and the term had a positive valence for them at the time. When Russian Marxist Vera Zasulich shot and wounded a Russian police commander who was known to torture suspects on 24 January 1878, for example, she threw down her weapon without killing him, announcing that she was a terrorist, not a killer.[The Four Waves of Rebel Terror and September 11. Department of Security
University of California at Los Angeles (Summer 2004). Retrieved on 2006-08-09.]
The next time the phrase gained currency was when it was used to describe the efforts by the British colonial government to end a spate of extremist Zionist attacks in the British Mandate of Palestine in the late 1940s. The British proclaimed a "War on Terrorism" and attempted to crack down on Irgun, Lehi, and people perceived to be cooperating with them. The Jewish attacks, Arab attacks and revolts, and the subsequent British crackdown hastened the British evacuation from Palestine and the establishment of the State of Israel.
The phrase was also used frequently by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s.["War on Terrorism", Aljazeera.Com, 2003-01-01. ] In fact, many leaders from all over the world use this term when dealing with perceived terrorist activity.
Overview
- See also: Terrorism, List of terrorist incidents, War on Terrorism (historical), Rationale for the War on Terrorism, and Timeline of the War on Terrorism
Terrorist organizations carried out attacks on the U.S. and its allies throughout the later part of the 20th century, prompting occasional military responses. Following the 1998 embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania,["Report of the Accountability Review Boards", U.S. Department of State, 1998-08-07. ] United States President Bill Clinton launched Operation Infinite Reach, a bombing campaign in Sudan and Afghanistan against targets associated with al-Qaeda.["U.S. strikes terrorist targets in Afghanistan, Sudan", CNN, 1998-08-20. ]["U.S. retaliates for Africa bombings", CNN, 08.20.98. ] In October of 2000 the USS Cole bombing occurred,["U.S. sailors killed in attack on Navy vessel in Yemen", CNN, 2000-10-12. ] followed by the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.["What proof of bin Laden\'s involvement", CNN, 2001-09-13. ] The latter attacks created an immediate demand throughout the United States for a response.
The campaign began with the freezing of the assets of terrorist organizations and associated groups.["Fact Sheet on Terrorist Financing Executive Order", White House, 09-14-2001.] The United Nations Security Council also adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 which obliges all States to criminalize assistance for terrorist activities, deny financial support and safe haven to terrorists and share information about groups planning terrorist attacks.[Counter-Terrorism Committee, United Nations Security Council, 09-29-31-2007.] NATO began Operation Active Endeavour on October 4th, which stepped up security checks in the Mediterranean.["Operation Active Endeavour", Allied Joint Force Command Naples, NATO.] After the Taliban rejected an ultimatum to turn over the al-Qaeda operatives in Afghanistan, the United States and NATO began airstrikes against Taliban and al-Qaeda targets on October 7, 2001. The Afghan Northern Alliance and allied militia, aided by elements of the United States Special forces, began a ground offensive that succeeded in capturing most of Afghanistan by early 2002. While operations continued in Afghanistan, the campaign was expanded into the Philippines, where United States Special Forces assisted the Philippine army against elements of al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah, and Abu Sayyaf. It was expanded further into the Horn of Africa, where NATO allies began training Ethiopian and Djiboutian armed forces in anti-terrorism and counter-insurgency methods.
On March 20, 2003, the United States, United Kingdom, and a coalition expanded the campaign into Iraq, seeking to topple Saddam Hussein for his alleged possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction and state sponsorship of terrorism. By May 1, they had succeeded in doing so, though an insurgency developed supported by al-Qaeda and other militant elements. Likewise, the Taliban insurgency continued in Afghanistan, and their frequent border crossings into Pakistan prompted the nation to expand the campaign further into Waziristan in 2004, to remove Taliban and al-Qaeda elements.
In 2005 the Security Council also adopted resolution 1624 concerning incitement to commit acts of terrorism and the obligations of countries to comply with international human rights laws.[ Although both resolutions require mandatory annual reports on counter terrorism activities by adopting nations, the United States and Israel have both declined to submit reports.][Corrado Maria Daclon, US elections and war on terrorism, Analisi Difesa, 2004, n. 50]
Campaigns and theaters of operation
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Africa
Horn of Africa
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In October 2002, the Combined Joint Task Force, Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA), headed by Kanwarpreet Randhawa was established in Djibouti at Camp Le Monier. It contains approximately 2,000 personnel including U.S. military and Special Operations Forces (SOF) and coalition force members, Coalition Task Force 150 (CTF-150). The primary goal of the coalition forces is to monitor, inspect, board and stop suspected shipments from entering the Horn of Africa. These are regions and areas of Operation Iraqi Freedom.[CRS Report for CongressPDF] Included in the operation is the training of selected armed forces units of the countries of Djibouti, Kenya and Ethiopia in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency tactics. Humanitarian efforts conducted by CJTF-HOA include rebuilding of schools and medical clinics as well as providing medical services to those countries whose forces are being trained.
Somalia became the mother of all operations as the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), an Islamist faction campaigning on a restoration of "law and order" through Sharia Law, had rapidly taken control of much of southern Somalia, displacing other militia and the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) of Somalia. On July 1, 2006, a Web-posted message purportedly written by Osama bin Laden urged Somalis to build an Islamic state in the country and warned western states that his al-Qaeda network would fight against them if they intervened there.[Bin Laden releases Web message on Iraq, Somalia USA Today] On December 14, 2006, the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Jendayi Frazer claimed al-Qaeda cell operatives were controlling the Islamic Courts Union, a claim denied by the ICU.[U.S. says al Qaeda behind Somali Islamists Reuters]
After seeing their power limited to the city of Baidoa, the TFG was attacked in a final ICU offensive aimed at destroying it in December 2006. But Ethiopia intervened, defending the TFG and forcing the ICU to retreat. The ICU abandoned conventional warfare, instead opting for guerilla combat, turning the battle to an insurgency as Ethiopia began aiding the TFG restore order. The Prime Minister of Somalia claims that 3 terrorist suspects from the 1998 Embassy Bombings were in Kismayo.["Militia under siege for shelter of terrorist suspects", Guardian Unlimited, 01-01-2007.] On 30 December, 2006, al-Qaeda deputy leader Ayman al-Zawahiri called upon Muslims worldwide to fight against Ethiopia and the TFG in Somalia.[Somali, Ethiopian troops take Islamist stronghold CNN] The United States carried out several strikes against al-Qaeda targets within Somalia during 2007.
North Africa and Sahara region
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Europe
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Beginning in October 2001, Operation Active Endeavour is a naval operation of NATO started in response to the 9/11 attacks. It operates in the Mediterranean Sea and is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction as well as to enhance the security of shipping in general. The operation has also assisted Greece with the prevention of illegal immigration.
Middle East
 US Soldiers patrol the streets of Baghdad. Iraq
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Tensions were high throughout the 1990s, with the United States launching Operation Desert Fox against Iraq in 1998 after it failed to meet demands of "unconditional cooperation" in weapons inspections.["Clinton: Iraq has abused its final chance", CNN, 1998-12-16. ] After the September 11 attacks, the U.S. government claimed that Iraq was a threat to the United States because Iraq could begin to use its alleged Weapons of Mass Destruction to aid terrorist groups.[Wright, Steven. The United States and Persian Gulf Security: The Foundations of the War on Terror, Ithaca Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0863723216]
The George W. Bush administration called for the United Nations Security Council to send weapons inspectors to Iraq to find and destroy alleged weapons of mass destruction and for a UNSC resolution.["Iraq weighs U.N. resolution", CNN, 2002-11-09. ]["Bush\'s remarks after U.N. passes Iraq resolution", CNN, 2002-11-08. ] UNSC Resolution 1441 was passed unanimously, which offered Iraq "a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations" or face "serious consequences." Resolution 1441 did not authorize the use of force by member states, thus Resolution 1441 had no effect on the UN Charter\'s prohibition on the use of force by member states against fellow member states. Saddam Hussein subsequently allowed UN inspectors to access Iraqi sites, while the U.S. government continued to assert that Iraq was being obstructionist.["The Second U.N. Resolution", The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, 02-24-2003.] In October 2002, the United States Congress authorized the president to use force if necessary to disarm Iraq in order to "prosecute the war on terrorism."["Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq", White House, 2002-10-02. ] After failing to overcome opposition from France, Russia, and China against a UNSC resolution that would sanction the use of force against Iraq, and before the UN weapons inspectors had completed their inspections which were deemed to be fruitless by the U.S. because of Iraq\'s alleged deception, the United States assembled a "Coalition of the Willing" composed of nations who pledged support for a war against Iraq. On March 20th, 2003, the invasion of Iraq was launched in what the Bush Administration said were the "serious consequences" spoken of in UNSC Resolution 1441.
Saddam Hussein\'s regime was quickly toppled and on May 1, 2003, George W. Bush stated major combat operations in Iraq had ended and claimed victory against it.["President Bush Announces Major Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended", White House, 05-01-2003.] Nonetheless, the war has continued on for years, in the form of an insurgency against coalition forces, Iraqi police units, and the Iraqi government. The insurgency has also featured regular and brutal attacks against the civilian population of Iraq, particularly schools and marketplaces, often utilizing suicide bomber tactics.
The insurgency features nationalist, pan-Arabist, and militant Islamist components. Sunni loyalists, driven by nationalism or pan-Arabism, comprise a central element; often informed by formal military experience, this component is fighting to eject western forces from Iraq, and perhaps also to restore the Sunni privileges enjoyed under the Saddam Hussein regime. Another important element of the insurgency are the militant Islamists, who see themselves as fighting a religious war against infidel occupiers and their Iraqi collaborators.["Meet The New Jihad", Time, 07-27-2004.]
To date the weapons which the US and coalition partners claimed existed have not been found and although some U.S. officials had cited claims of a connection between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda[The Weekly Standard, Saddam\'s al Qaeda Connection.] no evidence of any operational or collaborative relationship was found.[http://irrationallyinformed.com//pdfcollection/20040729_Kerr_Report.pdf]
Lebanon
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In July 2006, following the killing of three Israeli soldiers and the taking prisoner of two more by Hezbollah, Israel invaded southern Lebanon, intent on the destruction of Hezbollah. The Lebanese Government did not give Hezbollah the consent to undergoe any operation against Israel.[citation needed] The conflict lasted over a month and caused the deaths of between 845[Lauren Frayer. "Lebanese army greeted in south", Indianapolis Star, 2006-08-18. ] and 1300[Robert Fisk. "Robert Fisk: Lebanon\'s pain grows by the hour as death toll hits 1,300", The Independent, 2006-08-17. ] Lebanese and 163 Israelis (119 military and 44 civilian) and wounding thousands more Israelis and Lebanese.[ Ben Wedeman; Brent Sadler. "Refugees stream back to southern Lebanon", CNN, 2006-08-14. ] Both the Lebanese government (including Hezbollah) and the Israeli government have agreed to the terms of the ceasefire agreement created by the United Nations that began at 0500 on August 14, 2006. While the conflict is associated with the longer running Arab-Israeli conflict, prior to the declaration of the ceasefire, Israel stated it was fighting a war against terror,["Israel needs int\'l support for war against terror: DM", People\'s Daily Online, August 10, 2006. "Israeli Defense Minister Amir Peretz said Wednesday morning that Israel is fighting a war of the free world against terror"] the U.S. government stated the conflict was also a front in the "War on Terror"["Lebanon part of \'war on terror\', says Bush", ABC News, July 30, 2006. ][dubious – discuss] and President Bush reiterated it in a speech the day the ceasefire came into effect.["Bush: \'Hezbollah suffered a defeat\'", CNN, 2006-08-14. ][dubious – discuss]
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In 2007 a conflict began in northern Lebanon after fighting broke out between Fatah al-Islam, an Islamist militant organization, and the Lebanese Armed Forces on May 20, 2007 in Nahr al-Bared, a Palestinian refugee camp near Tripoli. The conflict evolved mostly around the Siege of Nahr el-Bared, but minor clashes had also occurred in the Ain al-Hilweh refugee camp in southern Lebanon and several terrorist bombings took place in and around Lebanon\'s capital Beirut. The terrorist group has been described as a militant jihadist[Le Figaro (April 16 2007). "Fatah Al-Islam: the new terrorist threat hanging over Lebanon". Retrieved May 20 2007.] movement that draws inspiration from al-Qaeda.
Saudi Arabia
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The resistance against Saudi government was started since the bombing in Riyadh on 12 May, 2003 by al-Qaeda terrorists. The attacks are targeting the Saudi security forces, the foreign workers, and tourists (mostly Western).
Gaza Strip/West Bank
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The Fatah-Hamas conflict began in 2006 and has continued, in one form or another, throughout 2007 and early 2008. The conflict is between the two main Palestinian factions, Fatah and Hamas, with each trying to assume political control of the Palestinian territories. The majority of the fighting is occurring in the Gaza Strip, which was taken over by Hamas in June 2007. Fatah is United States backed and, although Hamas won the first free and democratic elections held in the Palestinian territories, it is considered a terrorist organization by the United States, United Nations and the European Union.
Central Asia/South Asia
Afghanistan
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 Soldiers in south-eastern Afghanistan check their coordinates during a combat patrol. In October 2001, in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States, NATO invaded the country of Afghanistan to remove al-Qaeda forces and oust the Taliban regime which had control of the country. After the initial attack, the Taliban\'s conventional force dissolved and the war turned into an insurgency.
India
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India has had to deal with a slow but steady rise in Islamist terrorism over the course of the 1990s and the 21st century. The recent rise in prominence of several terrorist groups, such as Lashkar-e-Toiba, Jaish-e-Mohammed, Hizbul Mujahideen and others in Kashmir has created grave problems for the country. Major terrorist incidents in India include the 1993 Mumbai bombings, as well as Terrorism in Kashmir such as Wandhama massacre, Kaluchak massacre, Chittisinghpura massacre and others. Terrorist attacks in the rest of the country include the 2001 Indian Parliament attack, Akshardham Temple attack, 29 October 2005 Delhi bombings, 2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack in Ayodhya, 2005 Jaunpur train bombing, 29 October 2005 Delhi bombings, 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings, 2006 Malegaon blasts, 2006 Varanasi bombings, and the 2007 Samjhauta Express bombings.
The international terrorist network al-Qaeda also lends ideological and financial support to terrorism in Kashmir, with Osama bin Laden and his co-ideologues in the militant Islamist press in Pakistan[Pakistan’s Islamist press calls for jihad] constantly demanding that jihad be waged against India.["Osama bin Laden", South Asia Terrorism Portal.] and Islamic fundamentalist propaganda groups disseminating propaganda in many countries against India with rhetoric like "idol worshippers and Hindus" who "occupy Kashmir".["A question of Leadership" programme transcript, BBC News, 09-16-2005.]
The Indian Government and Military of India have taken numerous counter-terrorist measures to combat rising terrorism in the country.["India\'s counter-terrorism strategy", Rediff.com, 04-06-2003.]["Evolution Of India\'s Counter-Terrorism Capabilities", International Terrorism Monitor, South Asia Analysis Group, 05-10-2006.] Some of these measures stand criticized by human rights groups as being too draconian, particularly in Kashmir. Similar allegations are levelled on the militants as well.["The surrogate war in Kashmir", Business Line, 03-08-2001.] In the aftermath of the 2001 Indian Parliament attack, massive troop buildups occurred in the Kashmir region by both India and Pakistan and fire was exchanged. This incident is called the 2001-2002 India-Pakistan standoff. On January 12 2002, Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf gave a speech intended to reduce tensions with India. He declared the Pakistan would combat extremism on its own soil, but said that Pakistan had a right to Kashmir.["Musharraf declares war on extremism", BBC News, 01-12-2002.]
Indian leaders reacted with skepticism. Minister of State for External Affairs Omar Abdullah said that the speech was nothing new, and others said that it would \'not make any change in the Indian stand\'.[Joseph, Josy/Sahay, Tara Shankar. "Musharraf\'s speech greeted with skepticism in India", Rediff.com.] Still, tensions eased somewhat. The Indian President told his generals that there’d be no attack “for now.”[Steve Coll, "The Stand-Off." The New Yorker, February 13 & 20]
It should also be noted that India has been a target of Islamic terrorism for a much longer period of time than the western world and India\'s war against terrorism precedes the American war on terrorism.
Pakistan
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Pakistan has been a site of many high profile arrests in the War on Terrorism, including Khalid Shaikh Mohammed in 2003. In 2004 they launched an offensive into the Federally Administered Tribal Areas region of Waziristan. The goal of the conflict was to remove the al-Qaeda and Taliban forces in the region. After the fall of the Taliban regime many members of the Taliban resistance fled to the Northern border region of Afghanistan and the tribal regions of northwest Pakistan where the Pakistani army previously had little control. With logistics and air support from the United States, the Pakistani Army captured or killed numerous al-Qaeda operatives. Pakistan has suffered over 1000 casualties since the start of its war, due to them bearing the brunt of the fighting on the Afghan-Pakistani Border. Meanwhile, Pakistan has also been blamed for sponsoring terrorism in Afganistan[At Border, Signs of Pakistani Role in Taliban Surge - New York Times] and Indian Kashmir[A NATION CHALLENGED: THE SUSPECTS; Death of Reporter Puts Focus On Pakistan Intelligence Unit - New York Times].
Pakistan\'s intelligence agency, the ISI, has often been accused of playing a role in major terrorist attacks across the world including the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States,[Michael Meacher: The Pakistan connection | World news | The Guardian][Centre for Research on Globalisation (CRG)][BBC News | SOUTH ASIA | Pakistan spy service \'aiding Bin Laden\'] terrorism in Kashmir,[Terrorism Havens: Pakistan - Council on Foreign Relations][Indian minister ties ISI to Kashmir][Kashmir Militant Extremists - Council on Foreign Relations] Mumbai Train Bombings,[BBC NEWS | South Asia | Pakistan \'role in Mumbai attacks\'] London Bombings,[The Pakistani Connection: The London Bombers and "Al Qaeda\'s Webmaster"] Indian Parliament Attack,[Terrorist Attack on the Parliament of India - December 13, 2001] Varnasi bombings,[ISI now outsources terror to Bangladesh] Hyderabad bombings[Hyderabad blasts: The ISI hand][ISI may be behind Hyderabad blasts: Jana Reddy] The ISI is also accused of supporting Taliban forces[BBC NEWS | South Asia | Pakistan\'s shadowy secret service] and recruiting and training mujahideen[BBC NEWS | South Asia | Pakistan\'s shadowy secret service][http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/10/06/wafghan06.xml] to fight in Afganistan[At Border, Signs of Pakistani Role in Taliban Surge - New York Times][A NATION CHALLENGED: THE SUSPECTS; Death of Reporter Puts Focus On Pakistan Intelligence Unit - New York Times] and Kashmir[A NATION CHALLENGED: THE SUSPECTS; Death of Reporter Puts Focus On Pakistan Intelligence Unit - New York Times]
Pakistan is also said to be a haven for terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda,[Zee News - Pakistan has al-Qaeda training camp: US officials] Lashkar-e-Omar, Lashkar-e-Toiba, Sipah-e-Sahaba. Pakistan is accused of sheltering and training the |
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